Efficient (and well explained) implementation of a Quadtree for 2D collision detection [closed]

Answer 1

3. Portable C Implementation

I hope people don't mind another answer but I ran out of the 30k limit. I was thinking today about how my first answer wasn't very language-agnostic. I was talking about mem allocation strategies, class templates, etc, and not all languages allow such things.

So I spent some time thinking about an efficient implementation that's almost universally applicable (an exception would be functional languages). So I ended up porting my quadtree to C in a way such that all it needs are arrays of int to store everything.

The result isn't pretty but should work very efficiently on any language that allows you to store contiguous arrays of int. For Python there are libs like ndarray in numpy. For JS there are typed arrays. For Java and C#, we can use int arrays (not Integer, those are not guaranteed to be stored contiguously and they use a lot more mem than plain old int).

C IntList

So I use one auxiliary structure built on int arrays for the entire quadtree to make it as easy as possible to port to other languages. It combines a stack/free list. This is all we need to implement everything talked about in the other answer in an efficient way.

#ifndef INT_LIST_H
#define INT_LIST_H

#ifdef __cplusplus
    #define IL_FUNC extern "C"
#else
    #define IL_FUNC
#endif

typedef struct IntList IntList;
enum {il_fixed_cap = 128};

struct IntList
{
    // Stores a fixed-size buffer in advance to avoid requiring
    // a heap allocation until we run out of space.
    int fixed[il_fixed_cap];

    // Points to the buffer used by the list. Initially this will
    // point to 'fixed'.
    int* data;

    // Stores how many integer fields each element has.
    int num_fields;

    // Stores the number of elements in the list.
    int num;

    // Stores the capacity of the array.
    int cap;

    // Stores an index to the free element or -1 if the free list
    // is empty.
    int free_element;
};

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// List Interface
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Creates a new list of elements which each consist of integer fields.
// 'num_fields' specifies the number of integer fields each element has.
IL_FUNC void il_create(IntList* il, int num_fields);

// Destroys the specified list.
IL_FUNC void il_destroy(IntList* il);

// Returns the number of elements in the list.
IL_FUNC int il_size(const IntList* il);

// Returns the value of the specified field for the nth element.
IL_FUNC int il_get(const IntList* il, int n, int field);

// Sets the value of the specified field for the nth element.
IL_FUNC void il_set(IntList* il, int n, int field, int val);

// Clears the specified list, making it empty.
IL_FUNC void il_clear(IntList* il);

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Stack Interface (do not mix with free list usage; use one or the other)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Inserts an element to the back of the list and returns an index to it.
IL_FUNC int il_push_back(IntList* il);

// Removes the element at the back of the list.
IL_FUNC void il_pop_back(IntList* il);

// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Free List Interface (do not mix with stack usage; use one or the other)
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Inserts an element to a vacant position in the list and returns an index to it.
IL_FUNC int il_insert(IntList* il);

// Removes the nth element in the list.
IL_FUNC void il_erase(IntList* il, int n);

#endif

#include "IntList.h"
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <assert.h>

void il_create(IntList* il, int num_fields)
{
    il->data = il->fixed;
    il->num = 0;
    il->cap = il_fixed_cap;
    il->num_fields = num_fields;
    il->free_element = -1;
}

void il_destroy(IntList* il)
{
    // Free the buffer only if it was heap allocated.
    if (il->data != il->fixed)
        free(il->data);
}

void il_clear(IntList* il)
{
    il->num = 0;
    il->free_element = -1;
}

int il_size(const IntList* il)
{
    return il->num;
}

int il_get(const IntList* il, int n, int field)
{
    assert(n >= 0 && n < il->num);
    return il->data[n*il->num_fields + field];
}

void il_set(IntList* il, int n, int field, int val)
{
    assert(n >= 0 && n < il->num);
    il->data[n*il->num_fields + field] = val;
}

int il_push_back(IntList* il)
{
    const int new_pos = (il->num+1) * il->num_fields;

    // If the list is full, we need to reallocate the buffer to make room
    // for the new element.
    if (new_pos > il->cap)
    {
        // Use double the size for the new capacity.
        const int new_cap = new_pos * 2;

        // If we're pointing to the fixed buffer, allocate a new array on the
        // heap and copy the fixed buffer contents to it.
        if (il->cap == il_fixed_cap)
        {
            il->data = malloc(new_cap * sizeof(*il->data));
            memcpy(il->data, il->fixed, sizeof(il->fixed));
        }
        else
        {
            // Otherwise reallocate the heap buffer to the new size.
            il->data = realloc(il->data, new_cap * sizeof(*il->data));
        }
        // Set the old capacity to the new capacity.
        il->cap = new_cap;
    }
    return il->num++;
}

void il_pop_back(IntList* il)
{
    // Just decrement the list size.
    assert(il->num > 0);
    --il->num;
}

int il_insert(IntList* il)
{
    // If there's a free index in the free list, pop that and use it.
    if (il->free_element != -1)
    {
        const int index = il->free_element;
        const int pos = index * il->num_fields;

        // Set the free index to the next free index.
        il->free_element = il->data[pos];

        // Return the free index.
        return index;
    }
    // Otherwise insert to the back of the array.
    return il_push_back(il);
}

void il_erase(IntList* il, int n)
{
    // Push the element to the free list.
    const int pos = n * il->num_fields;
    il->data[pos] = il->free_element;
    il->free_element = n;
}

Using IntList

Using this data structure to implement everything doesn't yield the prettiest code. Instead of accessing elements and fields like this:

elements[n].field = elements[n].field + 1;

... we end up doing it like this:

il_set(&elements, n, idx_field, il_get(&elements, n, idx_field) + 1);

... which is disgusting, I know, but the point of this code is to be as efficient and portable as possible, not to be as easy to maintain as possible. The hope is that people can just use this quadtree for their projects without changing it or maintaining it.

Oh and feel free to use this code I post however you want, even for commercial projects. I would really love it if people let me know if they find it useful, but do as you wish.

C Quadtree

All right, so using the above data structure, here is the quadtree in C:

#ifndef QUADTREE_H
#define QUADTREE_H

#include "IntList.h"

#ifdef __cplusplus
    #define QTREE_FUNC extern "C"
#else
    #define QTREE_FUNC
#endif

typedef struct Quadtree Quadtree;

struct Quadtree
{
    // Stores all the nodes in the quadtree. The first node in this
    // sequence is always the root.
    IntList nodes;

    // Stores all the elements in the quadtree.
    IntList elts;

    // Stores all the element nodes in the quadtree.
    IntList enodes;

    // Stores the quadtree extents.
    int root_mx, root_my, root_sx, root_sy;

    // Maximum allowed elements in a leaf before the leaf is subdivided/split unless
    // the leaf is at the maximum allowed tree depth.
    int max_elements;

    // Stores the maximum depth allowed for the quadtree.
    int max_depth;

    // Temporary buffer used for queries.
    char* temp;

    // Stores the size of the temporary buffer.
    int temp_size;
};

// Function signature used for traversing a tree node.
typedef void QtNodeFunc(Quadtree* qt, void* user_data, int node, int depth, int mx, int my, int sx, int sy);

// Creates a quadtree with the requested extents, maximum elements per leaf, and maximum tree depth.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_create(Quadtree* qt, int width, int height, int max_elements, int max_depth);

// Destroys the quadtree.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_destroy(Quadtree* qt);

// Inserts a new element to the tree.
// Returns an index to the new element.
QTREE_FUNC int qt_insert(Quadtree* qt, int id, float x1, float y1, float x2, float y2);

// Removes the specified element from the tree.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_remove(Quadtree* qt, int element);

// Cleans up the tree, removing empty leaves.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_cleanup(Quadtree* qt);

// Outputs a list of elements found in the specified rectangle.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_query(Quadtree* qt, IntList* out, float x1, float y1, float x2, float y2, int omit_element);

// Traverses all the nodes in the tree, calling 'branch' for branch nodes and 'leaf' 
// for leaf nodes.
QTREE_FUNC void qt_traverse(Quadtree* qt, void* user_data, QtNodeFunc* branch, QtNodeFunc* leaf);

#endif

#include "Quadtree.h"
#include <stdlib.h>

enum
{
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // Element node fields:
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    enode_num = 2,

    // Points to the next element in the leaf node. A value of -1 
    // indicates the end of the list.
    enode_idx_next = 0,

    // Stores the element index.
    enode_idx_elt = 1,

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // Element fields:
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    elt_num = 5,

    // Stores the rectangle encompassing the element.
    elt_idx_lft = 0, elt_idx_top = 1, elt_idx_rgt = 2, elt_idx_btm = 3,

    // Stores the ID of the element.
    elt_idx_id = 4,

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // Node fields:
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    node_num = 2,

    // Points to the first child if this node is a branch or the first element
    // if this node is a leaf.
    node_idx_fc = 0,

    // Stores the number of elements in the node or -1 if it is not a leaf.
    node_idx_num = 1,

    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    // Node data fields:
    // ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    nd_num = 6,

    // Stores the extents of the node using a centered rectangle and half-size.
    nd_idx_mx = 0, nd_idx_my = 1, nd_idx_sx = 2, nd_idx_sy = 3,

    // Stores the index of the node.
    nd_idx_index = 4,

    // Stores the depth of the node.
    nd_idx_depth = 5,
};

static void node_insert(Quadtree* qt, int index, int depth, int mx, int my, int sx, int sy, int element);

static int floor_int(float val)
{
    return (int)val;
}

static int intersect(int l1, int t1, int r1, int b1,
                     int l2, int t2, int r2, int b2)
{
    return l2 <= r1 && r2 >= l1 && t2 <= b1 && b2 >= t1;
}

void leaf_insert(Quadtree* qt, int node, int depth, int mx, int my, int sx, int sy, int element)
{
    // Insert the element node to the leaf.
    const int nd_fc = il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc);
    il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc, il_insert(&qt->enodes));
    il_set(&qt->enodes, il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc), enode_idx_next, nd_fc);
    il_set(&qt->enodes, il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc), enode_idx_elt, element);

    // If the leaf is full, split it.
    if (il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_num) == qt->max_elements && depth < qt->max_depth)
    {
        int fc = 0, j = 0;
        IntList elts = {0};
        il_create(&elts, 1);

        // Transfer elements from the leaf node to a list of elements.
        while (il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc) != -1)
        {
            const int index = il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc);
            const int next_index = il_get(&qt->enodes, index, enode_idx_next);
            const int elt = il_get(&qt->enodes, index, enode_idx_elt);

            // Pop off the element node from the leaf and remove it from the qt.
            il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc, next_index);
            il_erase(&qt->enodes, index);

            // Insert element to the list.
            il_set(&elts, il_push_back(&elts), 0, elt);
        }

        // Start by allocating 4 child nodes.
        fc = il_insert(&qt->nodes);
        il_insert(&qt->nodes);
        il_insert(&qt->nodes);
        il_insert(&qt->nodes);
        il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc, fc);

        // Initialize the new child nodes.
        for (j=0; j < 4; ++j)
        {
            il_set(&qt->nodes, fc+j, node_idx_fc, -1);
            il_set(&qt->nodes, fc+j, node_idx_num, 0);
        }

        // Transfer the elements in the former leaf node to its new children.
        il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_num, -1);
        for (j=0; j < il_size(&elts); ++j)
            node_insert(qt, node, depth, mx, my, sx, sy, il_get(&elts, j, 0));
        il_destroy(&elts);
    }
    else
    {
        // Increment the leaf element count.
        il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_num, il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_num) + 1);
    }
}

static void push_node(IntList* nodes, int nd_index, int nd_depth, int nd_mx, int nd_my, int nd_sx, int nd_sy)
{
    const int back_idx = il_push_back(nodes);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_mx, nd_mx);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_my, nd_my);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_sx, nd_sx);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_sy, nd_sy);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_index, nd_index);
    il_set(nodes, back_idx, nd_idx_depth, nd_depth);
}

static void find_leaves(IntList* out, const Quadtree* qt, int node, int depth, 
                        int mx, int my, int sx, int sy, 
                        int lft, int top, int rgt, int btm)
{
    IntList to_process = {0};
    il_create(&to_process, nd_num);
    push_node(&to_process, node, depth, mx, my, sx, sy);

    while (il_size(&to_process) > 0)
    {
        const int back_idx = il_size(&to_process) - 1;
        const int nd_mx = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_mx);
        const int nd_my = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_my);
        const int nd_sx = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_sx);
        const int nd_sy = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_sy);
        const int nd_index = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_index);
        const int nd_depth = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_depth);
        il_pop_back(&to_process);

        // If this node is a leaf, insert it to the list.
        if (il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_num) != -1)
            push_node(out, nd_index, nd_depth, nd_mx, nd_my, nd_sx, nd_sy);
        else
        {
            // Otherwise push the children that intersect the rectangle.
            const int fc = il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_fc);
            const int hx = nd_sx >> 1, hy = nd_sy >> 1;
            const int l = nd_mx-hx, t = nd_my-hx, r = nd_mx+hx, b = nd_my+hy;

            if (top <= nd_my)
            {
                if (lft <= nd_mx)
                    push_node(&to_process, fc+0, nd_depth+1, l,t,hx,hy);
                if (rgt > nd_mx)
                    push_node(&to_process, fc+1, nd_depth+1, r,t,hx,hy);
            }
            if (btm > nd_my)
            {
                if (lft <= nd_mx)
                    push_node(&to_process, fc+2, nd_depth+1, l,b,hx,hy);
                if (rgt > nd_mx)
                    push_node(&to_process, fc+3, nd_depth+1, r,b,hx,hy);
            }
        }
    }
    il_destroy(&to_process);
}

static void node_insert(Quadtree* qt, int index, int depth, int mx, int my, int sx, int sy, int element)
{
    // Find the leaves and insert the element to all the leaves found.
    int j = 0;
    IntList leaves = {0};
    
    const int lft = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_lft);
    const int top = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_top);
    const int rgt = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_rgt);
    const int btm = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_btm);

    il_create(&leaves, nd_num);
    find_leaves(&leaves, qt, index, depth, mx, my, sx, sy, lft, top, rgt, btm);
    for (j=0; j < il_size(&leaves); ++j)
    {
        const int nd_mx = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_mx);
        const int nd_my = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_my);
        const int nd_sx = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_sx);
        const int nd_sy = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_sy);
        const int nd_index = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_index);
        const int nd_depth = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_depth);
        leaf_insert(qt, nd_index, nd_depth, nd_mx, nd_my, nd_sx, nd_sy, element);
    }
    il_destroy(&leaves);
}

void qt_create(Quadtree* qt, int width, int height, int max_elements, int max_depth)
{
    qt->max_elements = max_elements;
    qt->max_depth = max_depth;
    qt->temp = 0;
    qt->temp_size = 0;
    il_create(&qt->nodes, node_num);
    il_create(&qt->elts, elt_num);
    il_create(&qt->enodes, enode_num);

    // Insert the root node to the qt.
    il_insert(&qt->nodes);
    il_set(&qt->nodes, 0, node_idx_fc, -1);
    il_set(&qt->nodes, 0, node_idx_num, 0);

    // Set the extents of the root node.
    qt->root_mx = width >> 1;
    qt->root_my = height >> 1;
    qt->root_sx = qt->root_mx;
    qt->root_sy = qt->root_my;
}

void qt_destroy(Quadtree* qt)
{
    il_destroy(&qt->nodes);
    il_destroy(&qt->elts);
    il_destroy(&qt->enodes);
    free(qt->temp);
}

int qt_insert(Quadtree* qt, int id, float x1, float y1, float x2, float y2)
{
    // Insert a new element.
    const int new_element = il_insert(&qt->elts);

    // Set the fields of the new element.
    il_set(&qt->elts, new_element, elt_idx_lft, floor_int(x1));
    il_set(&qt->elts, new_element, elt_idx_top, floor_int(y1));
    il_set(&qt->elts, new_element, elt_idx_rgt, floor_int(x2));
    il_set(&qt->elts, new_element, elt_idx_btm, floor_int(y2));
    il_set(&qt->elts, new_element, elt_idx_id, id);

    // Insert the element to the appropriate leaf node(s).
    node_insert(qt, 0, 0, qt->root_mx, qt->root_my, qt->root_sx, qt->root_sy, new_element);
    return new_element;
}

void qt_remove(Quadtree* qt, int element)
{
    // Find the leaves.
    int j = 0;
    IntList leaves = {0};

    const int lft = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_lft);
    const int top = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_top);
    const int rgt = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_rgt);
    const int btm = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_btm);

    il_create(&leaves, nd_num);
    find_leaves(&leaves, qt, 0, 0, qt->root_mx, qt->root_my, qt->root_sx, qt->root_sy, lft, top, rgt, btm);

    // For each leaf node, remove the element node.
    for (j=0; j < il_size(&leaves); ++j)
    {
        const int nd_index = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_index);

        // Walk the list until we find the element node.
        int node_index = il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_fc);
        int prev_index = -1;
        while (node_index != -1 && il_get(&qt->enodes, node_index, enode_idx_elt) != element)
        {
            prev_index = node_index;
            node_index = il_get(&qt->enodes, node_index, enode_idx_next);
        }

        if (node_index != -1)
        {
            // Remove the element node.
            const int next_index = il_get(&qt->enodes, node_index, enode_idx_next);
            if (prev_index == -1)
                il_set(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_fc, next_index);
            else
                il_set(&qt->enodes, prev_index, enode_idx_next, next_index);
            il_erase(&qt->enodes, node_index);

            // Decrement the leaf element count.
            il_set(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_num, il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_num)-1);
        }
    }
    il_destroy(&leaves);

    // Remove the element.
    il_erase(&qt->elts, element);
}

void qt_query(Quadtree* qt, IntList* out, float x1, float y1, float x2, float y2, int omit_element)
{
    // Find the leaves that intersect the specified query rectangle.
    int j = 0;
    IntList leaves = {0};
    const int elt_cap = il_size(&qt->elts);

    const int qlft = floor_int(x1);
    const int qtop = floor_int(y1);
    const int qrgt = floor_int(x2);
    const int qbtm = floor_int(y2);

    if (qt->temp_size < elt_cap)
    {
        qt->temp_size = elt_cap;
        qt->temp = realloc(qt->temp, qt->temp_size * sizeof(*qt->temp));
        memset(qt->temp, 0, qt->temp_size * sizeof(*qt->temp));
    }

    // For each leaf node, look for elements that intersect.
    il_create(&leaves, nd_num);
    find_leaves(&leaves, qt, 0, 0, qt->root_mx, qt->root_my, qt->root_sx, qt->root_sy, qlft, qtop, qrgt, qbtm);

    il_clear(out);
    for (j=0; j < il_size(&leaves); ++j)
    {
        const int nd_index = il_get(&leaves, j, nd_idx_index);

        // Walk the list and add elements that intersect.
        int elt_node_index = il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_fc);
        while (elt_node_index != -1)
        {
            const int element = il_get(&qt->enodes, elt_node_index, enode_idx_elt);
            const int lft = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_lft);
            const int top = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_top);
            const int rgt = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_rgt);
            const int btm = il_get(&qt->elts, element, elt_idx_btm);
            if (!qt->temp[element] && element != omit_element && intersect(qlft,qtop,qrgt,qbtm, lft,top,rgt,btm))
            {
                il_set(out, il_push_back(out), 0, element);
                qt->temp[element] = 1;
            }
            elt_node_index = il_get(&qt->enodes, elt_node_index, enode_idx_next);
        }
    }
    il_destroy(&leaves);

    // Unmark the elements that were inserted.
    for (j=0; j < il_size(out); ++j)
        qt->temp[il_get(out, j, 0)] = 0;
}

void qt_cleanup(Quadtree* qt)
{
    IntList to_process = {0};
    il_create(&to_process, 1);

    // Only process the root if it's not a leaf.
    if (il_get(&qt->nodes, 0, node_idx_num) == -1)
    {
        // Push the root index to the stack.
        il_set(&to_process, il_push_back(&to_process), 0, 0);
    }

    while (il_size(&to_process) > 0)
    {
        // Pop a node from the stack.
        const int node = il_get(&to_process, il_size(&to_process)-1, 0);
        const int fc = il_get(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc);
        int num_empty_leaves = 0;
        int j = 0;
        il_pop_back(&to_process);

        // Loop through the children.
        for (j=0; j < 4; ++j)
        {
            const int child = fc + j;

            // Increment empty leaf count if the child is an empty 
            // leaf. Otherwise if the child is a branch, add it to
            // the stack to be processed in the next iteration.
            if (il_get(&qt->nodes, child, node_idx_num) == 0)
                ++num_empty_leaves;
            else if (il_get(&qt->nodes, child, node_idx_num) == -1)
            {
                // Push the child index to the stack.
                il_set(&to_process, il_push_back(&to_process), 0, child);
            }
        }

        // If all the children were empty leaves, remove them and 
        // make this node the new empty leaf.
        if (num_empty_leaves == 4)
        {
            // Remove all 4 children in reverse order so that they 
            // can be reclaimed on subsequent insertions in proper
            // order.
            il_erase(&qt->nodes, fc + 3);
            il_erase(&qt->nodes, fc + 2);
            il_erase(&qt->nodes, fc + 1);
            il_erase(&qt->nodes, fc + 0);

            // Make this node the new empty leaf.
            il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_fc, -1);
            il_set(&qt->nodes, node, node_idx_num, 0);
        }
    }
    il_destroy(&to_process);
}

void qt_traverse(Quadtree* qt, void* user_data, QtNodeFunc* branch, QtNodeFunc* leaf)
{
    IntList to_process = {0};
    il_create(&to_process, nd_num);
    push_node(&to_process, 0, 0, qt->root_mx, qt->root_my, qt->root_sx, qt->root_sy);

    while (il_size(&to_process) > 0)
    {
        const int back_idx = il_size(&to_process) - 1;
        const int nd_mx = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_mx);
        const int nd_my = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_my);
        const int nd_sx = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_sx);
        const int nd_sy = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_sy);
        const int nd_index = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_index);
        const int nd_depth = il_get(&to_process, back_idx, nd_idx_depth);
        const int fc = il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_fc);
        il_pop_back(&to_process);

        if (il_get(&qt->nodes, nd_index, node_idx_num) == -1)
        {
            // Push the children of the branch to the stack.
            const int hx = nd_sx >> 1, hy = nd_sy >> 1;
            const int l = nd_mx-hx, t = nd_my-hx, r = nd_mx+hx, b = nd_my+hy;
            push_node(&to_process, fc+0, nd_depth+1, l,t, hx,hy);
            push_node(&to_process, fc+1, nd_depth+1, r,t, hx,hy);
            push_node(&to_process, fc+2, nd_depth+1, l,b, hx,hy);
            push_node(&to_process, fc+3, nd_depth+1, r,b, hx,hy);
            if (branch)
                branch(qt, user_data, nd_index, nd_depth, nd_mx, nd_my, nd_sx, nd_sy);
        }
        else if (leaf)
            leaf(qt, user_data, nd_index, nd_depth, nd_mx, nd_my, nd_sx, nd_sy);
    }
    il_destroy(&to_process);
}

Temporary Conclusion

This isn't such a great answer but I'll try to come back and keep editing it. However, the above code should be very efficient on pretty much any language that allows contiguous arrays of plain old integers. As long as we have that contiguity guarantee, we can come up with a very cache-friendly quadtree which uses a very small mem footprint.

Please refer to the original answer for details on the overall approach.