Docker noob here...
How does one properly run the docker image of your Asp.Net CORE app which is produced by Visual Studio 2017 at the command line?
You are confusing here something. When you run your project with F5 in Visual Studio 2017, you run it with IISExpress on a randomly configured port.
In Docker you don't have IISExpress, there your app is only hosted by Kestrel (Kestrel is always used even behind IIS/IISExpress, but they act as reverse proxy).
The default port for Kestrel is 5000, but you can also configure it. See my post here for more detail on which methods you have to configure the listening ip/port.