I know that for older versions of .NET, you can determine if a given version is installed by following
https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/318785
The following commands are available with .NET Core SDK 2.1 (v2.1.300):
To list all installed .NET Core SDKs use: dotnet --list-sdks
To list all installed .NET Core runtimes use dotnet --list-runtimes
(tested on Windows as of writing, 03 Jun 2018, and again on 23 Aug 2018)
Update as of 24 Oct 2018: Better option is probably now dotnet --info in a terminal or PowerShell window as already mentioned in other answers.