How exactly does the callstack work?

Question

I\'m trying to get a deeper understanding of how the low level operations of programming languages work and especially how they interact with the OS/CPU. I\'ve probably read

Answer 1

There are already some really good answers here. However, if you are still concerned about the LIFO behavior of the stack, think of it as a stack of frames, rather than a stack of variables. What I mean to suggest is that, although a function may access variables that are not on the top of the stack, it is still only operating on the item at the top of the stack: a single stack frame.

Of course, there are exceptions to this. The local variables of the entire call chain are still allocated and available. But they won't be accessed directly. Instead, they are passed by reference (or by pointer, which is really only different semantically). In this case a local variable of a stack frame much further down can be accessed. But even in this case, the currently executing function is still only operating on its own local data. It is accessing a reference stored in its own stack frame, which may be a reference to something on the heap, in static memory, or further down the stack.

This is the part of the stack abstraction that makes functions callable in any order, and allows recursion. The top stack frame is the only object that is directly accessed by the code. Anything else is accessed indirectly (through a pointer that lives in the top stack frame).

It might be instructive to look at the assembly of your little program, especially if you compile without optimization. I think you will see that all of the memory access in your function happens through an offset from the stack frame pointer, which is the how the code for the function will be written by the compiler. In the case of a pass by reference, you would see indirect memory access instructions through a pointer that is stored at some offset from the stack frame pointer.